Here is a comprehensive demonstration of OOP concepts in Python for a C 98 programmer:
Class Definition and Object Creation
Python
# Privado por convenção: _underscore_simples # "Realmente privado": __underscore_duplo (name mangling) # Público: sem underscore from abc import abstractmethod class Animal(ABC): # Em python, variáveis declaradas no escopo da classe e não dentro de um # método específico, são automaticamente compartilhadas por todas instâncias. species_count = 0 # além disso, elas podem ser inicializadas diretamente dentro da classe. # Construtor def __init__(self, name): # Variáveis de instância self.name = name # público self._age = 0 # protegido por convenção self.__id = id(self) # privado (mas você consegue acessar com name mangling) Animal.species_count += 1 # Destrutor def __del__(self): Animal.species_count -= 1 # Método regular @abstractmethod def make_sound(self): pass # Equivalente a um método abstrato/virtual (deve ser implementado apenas nas classes filhas) # Método estático (não precisa da instância para ser utilizado, nem utiliza seus atributos) @staticmethod def get_kingdom(): return "Animalia" # Método de classe (recebe a classe como primeiro argumento, pode acessar atributos da classe) @classmethod def get_species_count(cls): return cls.species_count # Decorador de propriedade (getter) @property def age(self): return self._age # Decorador de propriedade (setter) @age.setter def age(self, value): if value >= 0: self._age = value # Métodos especiais (sobrecarga de operadores) def __str__(self): # Como toString() - para string legível return f"Animal named {self.name}" def __repr__(self): # Para debugging return f"Animal(name='{self.name}')" def __eq__(self, other): # Operador de comparação == return isinstance(other, Animal) and self.name == other.name def __len__(self): # Função len() return self._age def __getitem__(self, key): # Operador de acesso [] if key == 'name': return self.name raise KeyError(key)
C 98
#include <iostream> #include <string> #include <sstream> class Animal { public: static int species_count; Animal(const std::string& name) : name(name), _age(0), __id(++id_counter) { // construtor ++species_count; } ~Animal() { // destrutor --species_count; } virtual void make_sound() = 0; // Método não implementável na classe base (virtual/abstrato) static std::string get_kingdom() { // Não existe distinção entre // @classmethod e @staticmethod em cpp, apenas static methods. return "Animalia"; } // static methods podem ser utilizados sem instanciar uma classe e têm // acesso às propriedades estáticas da classe: static int get_species_count() { return species_count; } // getter: int get_age() const { return _age; } // setter: void set_age(int age) { if (age >= 0) { _age = age; } } // Implementação dos métodos especiais que vimos em python: std::string to_string() const { return "Animal named " + name; } std::string repr() const { std::ostringstream oss; oss <h2> Herança </h2> <h3> Python </h3> <pre class="brush:php;toolbar:false">class Dog(Animal): def __init__(self, name, breed): # Chama o construtor da classe pai super().__init__(name) self.breed = breed # Sobrescreve o método da classe pai def make_sound(self): return "Woof!"
C 98
class Dog : public Animal { public: Dog(const std::string& name, const std::string& breed) : Animal(name), breed(breed) {} void make_sound() override { std::cout <h2> Multiple Inheritance </h2> <h3> Python </h3> <pre class="brush:php;toolbar:false">class Pet: def is_vaccinated(self): return True class DomesticDog(Dog, Pet): pass
C 98
class Pet { public: bool is_vaccinated() const { return true; } }; class DomesticDog : public Dog, public Pet { public: DomesticDog(const std::string& name, const std::string& breed) : Dog(name, breed) {} };
Abstract Class
Python
from abc import ABC, abstractmethod class Shape(ABC): @abstractmethod def area(self): pass
C 98
class Shape { public: virtual ~Shape() {} virtual double area() const = 0; };
Usage Example
Python
if __name__ == "__main__": # Cria objetos dog = Dog("Rex", "Golden Retriever") # Acessa atributos print(dog.name) # Público print(dog._age) # Protegido (ainda acessível) # print(dog.__id) # Isso falhará print(dog._Animal__id) # Isso funciona (acessando attribute privado com name mangling) # Propriedades dog.age = 5 # Usa setter automaticamente print(dog.age) # Usa getter automaticamente # Métodos estáticos e de classe print(Animal.get_kingdom()) print(Animal.get_species_count()) # Verifica herança print(isinstance(dog, Animal)) # True print(issubclass(Dog, Animal)) # True # Métodos especiais em ação print(str(dog)) # Usa __str__ print(repr(dog)) # Usa __repr__ print(len(dog)) # Usa __len__ print(dog['name']) # Usa __getitem__
C 98
int main() { // Cria objetos Dog dog("Rex", "Golden Retriever"); // Acessa atributos std::cout ()) { std::cout <h2> Key Differences between Python and C 98 </h2> <ol> <li>No public/private/protected keywords (use naming conventions)</li> <li>Multiple inheritance differs: <ul> <li>Python uses Method Resolution Order (MRO) with C3 linearization</li> <li>No need for virtual inheritance like in C </li> <li> super() automatically follows the MRO</li> <li>The order of base classes matters in Python</li> <li>You can inspect the resolution order with __mro__ </li> </ul> </li> <li>All methods are virtual by default</li> <li>There is no distinction between pointers/references</li> <li>No need for memory management (garbage collector)</li> <li>Dynamic typing instead of static typing</li> <li>Property decorators instead of getter/setter methods</li> <li>Special methods use the __name__ format instead of the operator</li> keyword <li>More Pythonic syntax for operator overloading (e.g. __eq__ vs operator==)</li> </ol> <p>Use dir(object) to see all of an object's attributes and methods, and help(object) for documentation.</p> <h2> Special Topics: </h2> <h2> Diamond Inheritance Problem </h2> <pre class="brush:php;toolbar:false"> Animal . ' , _______ _ .`_|___|_`. _ Pet \ \ / / WorkingAnimal \ ' ' / \ " / \./ DomesticDog
Problems with Diamond Inheritance in C 98
Diamond inheritance occurs when a class inherits from two classes that, in turn, inherit from a common base class. This can cause several problems:
- Ambiguity: Methods and attributes of the common base class can become ambiguous.
- Data Duplication: Each derived class can have its own copy of the members of the common base class, leading to data duplication.
Example of Diamond Inheritance in C 98
class Animal { public: Animal() { std::cout <h3> Expected Behavior </h3> <pre class="brush:php;toolbar:false">Animal constructor Pet constructor WorkingAnimal constructor DomesticDog constructor Pet sound
In this example, DomesticDog inherits from Pet and WorkingAnimal, both of which inherit from Animal. This creates an heirloom diamond. Virtual inheritance is used to avoid data duplication and ambiguity.
How Python Automatically Prevents Diamond Inheritance
Python uses Method Resolution Order (MRO) with C3 linearization to automatically solve diamond inheritance problems. MRO determines the order in which classes are checked when looking for a method or attribute.
Diamond Inheritance Example in Python
# Privado por convenção: _underscore_simples # "Realmente privado": __underscore_duplo (name mangling) # Público: sem underscore from abc import abstractmethod class Animal(ABC): # Em python, variáveis declaradas no escopo da classe e não dentro de um # método específico, são automaticamente compartilhadas por todas instâncias. species_count = 0 # além disso, elas podem ser inicializadas diretamente dentro da classe. # Construtor def __init__(self, name): # Variáveis de instância self.name = name # público self._age = 0 # protegido por convenção self.__id = id(self) # privado (mas você consegue acessar com name mangling) Animal.species_count += 1 # Destrutor def __del__(self): Animal.species_count -= 1 # Método regular @abstractmethod def make_sound(self): pass # Equivalente a um método abstrato/virtual (deve ser implementado apenas nas classes filhas) # Método estático (não precisa da instância para ser utilizado, nem utiliza seus atributos) @staticmethod def get_kingdom(): return "Animalia" # Método de classe (recebe a classe como primeiro argumento, pode acessar atributos da classe) @classmethod def get_species_count(cls): return cls.species_count # Decorador de propriedade (getter) @property def age(self): return self._age # Decorador de propriedade (setter) @age.setter def age(self, value): if value >= 0: self._age = value # Métodos especiais (sobrecarga de operadores) def __str__(self): # Como toString() - para string legível return f"Animal named {self.name}" def __repr__(self): # Para debugging return f"Animal(name='{self.name}')" def __eq__(self, other): # Operador de comparação == return isinstance(other, Animal) and self.name == other.name def __len__(self): # Função len() return self._age def __getitem__(self, key): # Operador de acesso [] if key == 'name': return self.name raise KeyError(key)
Expected Behavior
#include <iostream> #include <string> #include <sstream> class Animal { public: static int species_count; Animal(const std::string& name) : name(name), _age(0), __id(++id_counter) { // construtor ++species_count; } ~Animal() { // destrutor --species_count; } virtual void make_sound() = 0; // Método não implementável na classe base (virtual/abstrato) static std::string get_kingdom() { // Não existe distinção entre // @classmethod e @staticmethod em cpp, apenas static methods. return "Animalia"; } // static methods podem ser utilizados sem instanciar uma classe e têm // acesso às propriedades estáticas da classe: static int get_species_count() { return species_count; } // getter: int get_age() const { return _age; } // setter: void set_age(int age) { if (age >= 0) { _age = age; } } // Implementação dos métodos especiais que vimos em python: std::string to_string() const { return "Animal named " + name; } std::string repr() const { std::ostringstream oss; oss <h2> Herança </h2> <h3> Python </h3> <pre class="brush:php;toolbar:false">class Dog(Animal): def __init__(self, name, breed): # Chama o construtor da classe pai super().__init__(name) self.breed = breed # Sobrescreve o método da classe pai def make_sound(self): return "Woof!"
In this example, Python automatically resolves diamond inheritance using MRO. You can check MRO using the __mro__:
attribute
class Dog : public Animal { public: Dog(const std::string& name, const std::string& breed) : Animal(name), breed(breed) {} void make_sound() override { std::cout <p>MRO in Python ensures that DomesticDog correctly inherits from Pet and WorkingAnimal, and that Animal is resolved before object. Therefore, declaration order influences MRO, but C3 linearization ensures that the hierarchy is respected.</p> <h2> Explanation: </h2> <ol> <li> <strong>Declaration Order</strong>: MRO starts with the most derived class and follows the order in which the base classes are declared.</li> <li> <strong>C3 Linearization</strong>: Ensures that each class appears before its superclasses and that the order of inheritance is maintained.</li> </ol> <h2> Data Structures: Stack, Queue and Map </h2> <h3> Stack </h3> <h4> Python </h4> <pre class="brush:php;toolbar:false">class Pet: def is_vaccinated(self): return True class DomesticDog(Dog, Pet): pass
C 98
class Pet { public: bool is_vaccinated() const { return true; } }; class DomesticDog : public Dog, public Pet { public: DomesticDog(const std::string& name, const std::string& breed) : Dog(name, breed) {} };
Queue
Python
from abc import ABC, abstractmethod class Shape(ABC): @abstractmethod def area(self): pass
C 98
class Shape { public: virtual ~Shape() {} virtual double area() const = 0; };
Map
Python
if __name__ == "__main__": # Cria objetos dog = Dog("Rex", "Golden Retriever") # Acessa atributos print(dog.name) # Público print(dog._age) # Protegido (ainda acessível) # print(dog.__id) # Isso falhará print(dog._Animal__id) # Isso funciona (acessando attribute privado com name mangling) # Propriedades dog.age = 5 # Usa setter automaticamente print(dog.age) # Usa getter automaticamente # Métodos estáticos e de classe print(Animal.get_kingdom()) print(Animal.get_species_count()) # Verifica herança print(isinstance(dog, Animal)) # True print(issubclass(Dog, Animal)) # True # Métodos especiais em ação print(str(dog)) # Usa __str__ print(repr(dog)) # Usa __repr__ print(len(dog)) # Usa __len__ print(dog['name']) # Usa __getitem__
C 98
int main() { // Cria objetos Dog dog("Rex", "Golden Retriever"); // Acessa atributos std::cout ()) { std::cout <p>Thank you for following this guide on OOP concepts in Python and C 98. We hope it was useful for your learning journey. If you liked the content, please leave your comment, like and share with your friends and colleagues. If you found an error, leave your comment and I will correct it! Until next time!</p>
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